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| Stage (age) |
Crisis |
Description |
Positive Outcome |
Negative Outcome |
| Infancy -- Age 0 to 1 |
Trust vs Mistrust |
In the first year of life, infants depend on others for food, warmth, and affection, and therefore must be able to blindly trust the parents (or caregivers) for providing those. |
If their needs are met consistently and responsively by the parents, infants will develop a secure attachment with the parents, but will learn to trust their environment in general as well.If their needs are met consistently and responsively by their parents, infants will develop a secure attachment to their parents and will learn to trust their environment in general as well. |
If not, infants will develop mistrust towards people and things in their environment, even towards themselves.
(not much impact on the emergence of Internet) |
| Toddler -- Age 1 to 2 |
Autonomy (Independence) vs Doubt (or Shame) |
Toddlers learn to walk, talk, use toilets, and do things for themselves. Their self-control and self-confidence begin to develop at this stage. |
If parents encourage their child's use of initiative and reassure them when they makes mistakes, the child will develop the confidence needed to cope with future situations that require choice, control, and independence. |
If parents are overprotective, or disapproving of the child's acts of independence, s/he may begin to feel ashamed of his/her behavior, or have doubts about his/her abilities.
(not much impact on the emergence of Internet) |
| Early Childhood -- Age 2 to 6 |
Initiative vs Guilt |
Children have newfound abilities at this stage as they have developed motor skills and become engaged in social interaction with people around them. They now must learn to achieve a balance between eagerness a thirst for adventure and added responsibilities, as well as learning to control impulses and childish fantasies. |
If parents are encouraging, but consistent in disciplining, children will learn to accept without guilt that certain things are not allowed, but at the same time will not feel ashamed when using their imagination and engaging in make-believe and role playing. |
If not, children may develop a sense of guilt and may come to believe that it is wrong to be independent.
(May be able to explore in the virtual world. Some computer lessons start in kindergarten.)
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| Elementary and Middle School Years -- Age 6 to 12 |
Competence vs Inferiority |
School is an important event at this stage. Children learn to make things, use tools, and acquire the skills to be a worker and a potential provider. And they do all these while making the transition from the world of home into the world of peers. |
If children can discover pleasure in intellectual stimulation, being productive, seeking success, they will develop a sense of competence. |
If not, they will develop a sense of inferiority.
(Children may tend to seek an outlet to compensate this feeling of inferiority. To reach the world of peers, ICQ could be a "safe" tool for most children to release themselves and at the same time build up a certain level of intimacy with peers.) |
| Adolescence-- Age 12 to 18 |
Identity vs Role Confusion |
This is the time when we ask the question "Who am I?" To successfully answer this question, Erikson suggests that the adolescent must integrate the healthy resolution of all earlier conflicts. Did we develop the basic sense of trust? Do we have a strong sense of independence, competence, and feel in control of our lives? Adolescents who have successfully dealt with earlier conflicts are ready for the "Identity Crisis", which is considered by Erikson as the single most significant conflict a person must face. |
If the adolescent solves this conflict successfully, s/he will come out of this stage with a strong identity, and be ready to plan for the future. |
If not, the adolescent will sink into confusion, unable to make decisions and choices, especially about vocation, sexual orientation, and his/her role in life in general.
(Will too much involvement in the virtual world threaten the success of this stage of development?) |
| Young Adulthood-- Age 19 to 40 |
Intimacy vs Isolation |
In this stage, the most important events are love relationships. No matter how successful you are with your work, said Erikson, you are not developmentally complete until you are capable of intimacy. An individual who has not developed a sense of identity usually will fear a committed relationship and may retreat into isolation. |
Adult individuals can form close relationships and share with others if they have achieved a sense of identity. |
If not, they will fear commitment, feel isolated and be unable to depend on anybody in the world.
(To avoid being isolated, the Internet may serve as an outlet to serve the need for intimate relationships with others.) |
| Middle Adulthood-- Age 40 to 65 |
Generativity vs Stagnation |
By "generatively" Erikson refers to the adult's ability to look outside oneself and care for others, through parenting, for instance. Erikson suggested that adults need children as much as children need adults, and that this stage reflects the need to create a living legacy. |
People can solve this crisis by having and nurturing children, or helping the next generation in other ways. |
If this crisis is not successfully resolved, the person will remain self-centered and experience stagnation later in life.
(Social interaction demonstrates a significant change at this stage. Virtual relationships may not be able to offer the necessary depth of interaction with the next generation) |
| Late Adulthood -- Age 65 to death |
Integrity vs Despair |
Old age is a time for reflecting upon one's own life and one's role in the big scheme of things, and seeing it filled with pleasure and satisfaction or disappointment and failure. |
If the adult has achieved a sense of fulfillment about life and a sense of unity within himself and with others, he will accept death with a sense of integrity. Just as the healthy child will not fear life, said Erikson, the healthy adult will not fear death. |
If not, the individual will despair and fear death.
( It is important for adults at this age to share their experiences with the younger generation. Will their life have any impact in this rapidly changing society?) |
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